The
International Space Station (ISS) is an internationally developed
research facility that is being assembled in low Earth orbit. On-orbit
construction of the station began in 1998 and is scheduled for
completion by late 2011. The station is expected to remain in operation
until at least 2015, and likely 2020. With a greater cross-sectional
area than that of any previous space station, the ISS can be seen from
Earth with the naked eye, and is by far the largest artificial satellite
that has ever orbited Earth. The ISS serves as a research laboratory
that has a microgravity environment in which crews conduct experiments
in biology, chemistry, medicine, physiology and physics, as well as
astronomical and meteorological observatio The station provides a unique
environment for the testing of the spacecraft systems that will be
required for missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS is operated by
Expedition crews of six astronauts and cosmonauts, with the station
programme maintaining an uninterrupted human presence in space since the
launch of Expedition 1 on 31 October 2000, a total of 9 years and 328
days. The programme is thus approaching the current record for
uninterrupted human presence on a space station, set aboard Mir, of
3,644 days (8 days short of 10 years), with the ISS expected to take the
record on 23 October 2010.As of 1 June 2010, the crew of Expedition 24
is aboard.
The
ISS is a synthesis of several space station projects that include the
American Freedom, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the European Columbus and
the Japanese Kibō. Budget constraints led to the merger of these
projects into a single multi-national programme.The ISS project began in
1994 with the Shuttle–Mir programme, and the first module of the
station, Zarya, was launched in 1998 by Russia. Assembly continues, as
pressurised modules, external trusses, and other components are launched
by American space shuttles, Russian Proton rockets and Russian Soyuz
rockets. As of May 2010, the station consists of fourteen pressurised
modules and an extensive integrated truss structure (ITS). Power is
provided by sixteen solar arrays mounted on the external truss, in
addition to four smaller arrays on the Russian modules. The station is
maintained at an orbit between 278 km (173 mi) and 460 km (286 mi)
altitude, and travels at an average speed of 27,743.8 km/h (17,239.2
mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.
Operated
as a joint project between the five participant space agencies, the
station's sections are controlled by mission control centres on the
ground operated by the American National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), the European Space Agency (ESA), the Russian
Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
(JAXA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The ownership and use of the
space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and
agreements that allow the Russian Federation to retain full ownership of
its own modules in the Russian Orbital Segment, with the US Orbital
Segment, the remainder of the station, allocated between the other
international partners. The cost of the station has been estimated by
ESA as €100 billion over 30 years,and, although estimates range from 35
billion dollars to 160 billion dollars, the ISS is believed to be the
most expensive object ever constructed. The financing, research
capabilities and technical design of the ISS programme have been
criticised because of the high cost. The station is serviced by Soyuz
spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, space shuttles, the Automated Transfer
Vehicle and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV-II), and has been visited by
astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.
Purpose
The
International Space Station (ISS) is an internationally developed
satellite currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. Primarily a
research laboratory, the ISS offers an advantage over spacecraft such as
NASA's Space Shuttle because it is a long-term platform in the space
environment, where extended studies are conducted. The presence of a
permanent crew affords the ability to monitor, replenish, repair, and
replace experiments and components of the spacecraft itself. Scientists
on Earth have swift access to the crew's data and can modify experiments
or launch new ones, benefits generally unavailable on specialised
unmanned spacecraft.
Crews,
who fly expeditions of several months duration, conduct scientific
experiments each day (approximately 160 man-hours a week). As of the
conclusion of Expedition 15, 138 major science investigations had been
conducted on the ISS.Scientific findings, in fields from basic science
to exploration research, are published every month.
The
ISS provides a location in the relative safety of Low Earth Orbit to
test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions
to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in the maintenance,
repair, and replacement of systems on-orbit, which will be essential in
operating spacecraft further from Earth. Mission risks are reduced, and
the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft are advanced.
Part
of the crew's mission is educational outreach and international
cooperation. The crew of the ISS provide opportunities for students on
Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational
demonstrations, and allowing for student participation in classroom
versions of ISS experiments, NASA investigator experiments, and ISS
engineering activities. The ISS programme itself, with the international
cooperation that it represents, allows 14 nations to live and work
together in space, providing lessons for future multi-national missions.
Scientific research on the ISS
Expedition 8 Commander and Science Officer Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the Microgravity Science Glovebox.
The
ISS provides a platform to conduct experiments that require one or more
of the unusual conditions present on the station. The primary fields of
research include human research, space medicine, life sciences,
physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology. The 2005 NASA
Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International
Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the
use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector.
Research
on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space
exposure on the human body. Subjects currently under study include
muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. The data will be used to
determine whether space colonisation and lengthy human spaceflight are
feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest
that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement
problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary
cruise (such as the six-month journey time required to fly to Mars).
Large scale medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS via the
National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent
among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study
in which astronauts (including former ISS Commanders Leroy Chiao and
Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote
experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical
conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician onboard the ISS and
diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that
remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in
emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician
is difficult.
Researchers
are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless
environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes
of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to
investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional,
human-like tissues, and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed
in space.
The
investigation of the physics of fluids in microgravity will allow
researchers to model the behaviour of fluids better. Because fluids can
be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate
fluids that do not mix well on Earth. In addition, an examination of
reactions that are slowed by low gravity and temperatures will give
scientists a deeper understanding of superconductivity.
The
study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with
the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of
techniques used on the ground. Other areas of interest include the
effect of the low gravity environment on combustion, through the study
of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants.
These findings may improve our knowledge about energy production, and
lead to economic and environmental benefits. Future plans are for the
researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and
oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust,
antimatter, and dark matter in the universe.
Origins
Shuttle–Mir Program
Space Station Freedom and Mir-2
Space Shuttle Atlantis docked to Mir on STS-71, during the Shuttle-Mir Program
The
International Space Station represents a union of several national
space station projects that originated during the Cold War. In the early
1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as
a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations, while the
Soviets were planning to construct Mir-2 in the 1990s as a replacement
for Mir. Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never
progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests.
With
the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Space Race, Freedom was
nearly cancelled by the United States House of Representatives. The
post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia led to the cancellation of Mir-2,
though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been constructed.Similar
budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station
projects, which prompted the American government to negotiate with
European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a
collaborative project.
In
June 1992 American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president
Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration. The resulting
Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian
Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short, joint space programme,
with one American astronaut deployed to the Russian space station Mir
and two Russian cosmonauts deployed to a Space Shuttle.
In
September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime
Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station,
which eventually became the International Space Station. They also
agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States
would be heavily involved in the Mir programme as part of an agreement
that later included Space Shuttle orbiters docking with Mir.
According
to the plan, the International Space Station programme would combine
the proposed space stations of all participant agencies: NASA's Freedom,
the RSA's Mir-2 (with DOS-8 later becoming Zvezda), ESA's Columbus, and
the Japanese Kibō laboratory. When the first module, Zarya, was
launched in 1998, the station was expected to be completed by 2003.
Delays have led to a revised estimated completion date of 2011.
Station structure
Assembly
Assembly of the International Space Station
Astronaut Ron Garan during an STS-124 ISS assembly spacewalk
Expedition 18 commander Michael Fincke's video tour of the habitable part of the ISS from January 2009
The
assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space
architecture, began in November 1998. Astronauts install each element
using spacewalks. By 27 November 2009, they had completed 136, totalling
849 hours of extra-vehicular activity (EVA), all devoted to assembly
and maintenance of the station. Twenty-eight of these spacewalks
originated from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles; the remaining 108
were launched from the station.
The
first segment of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on 20 November 1998 on a
Russian Proton rocket, followed two weeks later by Unity—the first of
three node modules—which was launched aboard Space Shuttle flight
STS-88. This bare two-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the
next one-and-a-half years. In July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was
added, allowing a maximum crew of three to occupy the ISS continuously.
The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz
TM-31, midway between the flights of STS-92 and STS-97. These two Space
Shuttle flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss
Structure, which provided the embryonic station with communications,
guidance, electrical grounding (on Z1), and power via solar arrays
located on the P6 truss.
Over
the next two years the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket
delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery,
Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest
airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and
several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.
The
expansion schedule was interrupted by the destruction of the Space
Shuttle Columbia on STS-107 in 2003, with the resulting hiatus in the
Space Shuttle programme halting station assembly until the launch of
Discovery on STS-114 in 2005.
The
official resumption of assembly was marked by the arrival of Atlantis,
flying STS-115, which delivered the station's second set of solar
arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were
delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major
expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more
pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node and
Columbus European laboratory were added. These were followed shortly
after by the first two components of Kibō. In March 2009, STS-119
completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the
fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kibō was
delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian Poisk module.
The third node, Tranquility, was delivered in February 2010 during
STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola, closely
followed in May 2010 by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet,
delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132.
As
of May 2010, the station consisted of fourteen pressurised modules and
the complete Integrated Truss Structure. Still to be launched is the
Pressurized Multipurpose Module Leonardo, the Russian Multipurpose
Laboratory Module Nauka and a number of external components, including
the European Robotic Arm and Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02).
Assembly is expected to be completed by 2011, by which point the station
will have a mass in excess of 400 metric tons (440 short tons).
Pressurised modules
When
completed, the ISS will consist of sixteen pressurised modules with a
combined volume of around 1,000 cubic metres (35,000 cu ft). These
modules include laboratories, docking compartments, airlocks, nodes and
living quarters. Thirteen of these components are already in orbit, with
the remaining three awaiting launch. Each module was or will be
launched either by the Space Shuttle, Proton rocket or Soyuz rocket.
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